Critical Analysis of the Discourse of Political Pan-Islamism in Maulana Muhammad Barakatullah Bhopali’s (Indian) Thought in the 1924 Book 'The Khilafet'
Subject Areas : پژوهش سیاست نظری
Mohammad Mohammadzadehvijeh
1
,
Maziar Mozaffari Falarti
2
*
,
Heshmat Alsadat Moeini Far
3
,
Hamideh Molaei Farsangi
4
1 - Ph.D. Student in Indian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
2 - Assistant Professor, Department of South, East Asian and Oceanian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
3 - Associate Professor, Department Department of South, East Asian and Oceanian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
4 - Associate Professor, Department Department of South, East Asian and Oceanian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
Keywords: Transnational Islamism, Pan-Islamism, Caliphate, Discourse-Historical Approach, Muhammad Barkatullah.,
Abstract :
Critical Analysis of the Discourse of Political Pan-Islamism in Maulana Muhammad Barakatullah Bhopali’s (Indian) Thought
in the 1924 Book 'The Khilafet'
Mohammad Mohammadzadeh Vizheh *
Maziar Mozaffari Falarti**
Heshmat Saddat Moeinifar***
Hamideh Molaei Farsangi****
From the perspective of historians, the First World War is regarded as a turning point in the political and social transformations of West Asia. The collapse of the Ottoman state, the formation of secular nation-states, and the weakening of the institution of the caliphate are considered among the most significant consequences of this war. Some Islamists, including Muhammad Barkatullah, viewed the disintegration of the Ottoman caliphate as a serious threat to the cohesion of the Islamic ummah and emphasized the necessity of rethinking the concept of the caliphate. Following the abolition of the caliphate, Barkatullah proposed the idea of a “Caliphate Republic” in an attempt to present a new model for organizing the Islamic ummah in opposition to secular nation-states and global imperialism.
The central hypothesis of this study is that the concept of the Caliphate Republic constitutes the most important unifying component in Barkatullah’s pan-Islamist discourse. Employing Ruth Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach, this article analyzes Barkatullah’s book The Khilafat and seeks to answer the following questions: “How did Barkatullah use the institution of the caliphate to consolidate Islamic unity?” and “How did Barkatullah justify concepts such as spiritual communism, Islamic unity, and the secular state in pursuit of pan-Islamist objectives?”
The findings indicate that Barkatullah’s thought has both theoretical and practical dimensions. On the practical level, by integrating the spiritual and material (financial) aspects of the caliphate, he proposed a solution to overcome the crisis resulting from its collapse and advanced three components—individual spirituality, a communist economy, and a secular state—in a heterogeneous and unstructured combination, aimed at achieving Muslim unity. On the theoretical level, his pan-Islamist discourse is grounded in a redefinition of the caliphate—one that presents it not merely as a traditional institution, but as a model for organizing the Islamic ummah and resisting the structures of global imperialism.
Keywords: Transnational Islamism; Pan-Islamism; Caliphate; Discourse-Historical Approach; Muhammad Barkatullah.
Introduction
British colonial domination over India represents a paradigmatic case of political, economic, and cultural imperialism in Asia, producing enduring consequences such as economic inequality, social injustice, religious fragmentation, and normative transformation. These conditions, coupled with rising political consciousness and widespread discontent, catalyzed the emergence of anti-colonial movements. Initially reactive to local grievances, these movements gradually evolved into broader ideological discourses by integrating national and religious frameworks. Three principal ideological currents emerged: absolute nationalism, rooted in secular modernity and emphasizing sovereignty, social justice, and economic equity; absolute Islamism, which rejected territorially bounded nationalism as incompatible with the transnational ummah and prioritized Islamic identity; and an intermediate nationalist–Islamist discourse that sought synthesis through shared values like freedom, justice, and resistance to colonialism.
Within this ideological spectrum, Maulana Muhammad Barkatullah Bhopali emerged as a distinctive intellectual figure who bridged Islamism, nationalism, and even socialist thought in the struggle against colonial rule. His 1924 book The Caliphate stands at the intersection of these discourses, reinterpreting the Caliphate not merely as a historical institution but as a political and spiritual project for Muslim unity and anti-colonial mobilization. This study examines Barkatullah’s Pan-Islamist discourse in The Caliphate, analyzing how he redefined Islamic unity in response to the collapse of the Ottoman Caliphate and the pressures of Western imperialism.
Literature Review
This research draws on three interconnected bodies of literature. First, studies on the socio-political context of late 19th- and early 20th-century India and the Islamic world illuminate how British colonial policies marginalized Muslim communities, fueling resistance and alternative ideologies such as nationalism and Pan-Islamism. These works highlight the role of colonialism in reshaping religious and political identities.
Second, scholarship on Pan-Islamism and the Caliphate question reveals that Pan-Islamism was not merely religious idealism but a political response to Western domination and the disintegration of the Ottoman order. The Caliphate, as both symbolic and institutional center of Muslim unity, became a focal point of debate. While Ottoman-centered Pan-Islamism was largely defensive, it inspired diverse intellectual responses: from Rashid Rida’s call for restoration, to Ali Abd al-Raziq’s secular critique, to al-Sanhuri’s reformist reinterpretation. After the Caliphate’s abolition in 1924, the idea of “Islamic unity” increasingly replaced institutional revival.
Third, biographical and analytical works on Barkatullah’s life and activism reveal the deep interconnection between his transnational experiences—spanning Europe, the U.S., and Asia—and his theoretical formulations. His engagement with revolutionary networks, anti-colonial diplomacy, and Marxist ideas shaped a unique vision of Pan-Islamism as both ideological and practical resistance.
Problem Statement
Despite growing interest in anti-colonial thought, Barkatullah remains a relatively understudied figure, particularly regarding his conceptualization of the Caliphate and its role in Pan-Islamist discourse. Central questions remain unexplored: How did Barkatullah reconcile Islamic unity with republican and even socialist ideals? In what ways did he redefine the Caliphate in response to colonialism and the post-Ottoman vacuum? And how did his discourse navigate tensions between spiritual authority, political mobilization, and economic justice? This study addresses these gaps by critically analyzing The Caliphate as both a theoretical text and a political manifesto, situating it within the broader discourse of anti-colonial Pan-Islamism.
Methodology
The study employs Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), specifically Ruth Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA), to examine the construction and function of key concepts in Barkatullah’s text. DHA emphasizes the dialectical relationship between language, power, ideology, and historical context, asserting that discourse both reflects and reproduces social realities. The approach utilizes five analytical strategies:
Referential (naming and categorization),
Predicational (attribution of qualities),
Argumentation (justification of claims),
Perspectivization (framing of viewpoints), and
Intensification/mitigation (emphasizing or downplaying ideas).
By integrating linguistic analysis with historical and socio-political context, this method enables the uncovering of hidden ideological structures and power dynamics. The central research question is: How was the discourse of Pan-Islamism in Muhammad Barkatullah’s thought formulated and consolidated through specific discursive strategies in connection with historical and anti-colonial contexts?
Findings and Discussion
Analysis of The Caliphate reveals Barkatullah’s effort to reconstruct the institution as a consultative, transnational, and anti-colonial framework grounded in the collective will of the ummah. He distinguishes between the “authentic Caliphate” of early Islam—characterized by service, consultation (shura), equality, and public welfare—and the “Ottoman sultanate,” which he critiques for merging spiritual and temporal power, leading to despotism under rulers like Abdulhamid II.
Barkatullah traces the Caliphate’s decline to both external interference—European powers exploiting ethnic and nationalist divisions—and internal authoritarianism. He views its 1924 abolition not as an isolated event but as the culmination of a long historical process. In redefining the Caliphate, he returns to the “golden age” of the Prophet and the Rightly Guided Caliphs, portraying early Islamic governance as inherently just and egalitarian. Notably, he describes early Muslim economic practices using the term “spiritual communism,” emphasizing communal solidarity and resource equity—concepts resonant with 1920s leftist discourse but framed within Islamic ethics.
Crucially, Barkatullah advocates for a clear separation between religion and politics. He warns that a centralized religious state risks tyranny and instead proposes a secular, law-based state alongside a spiritual Caliphate. This spiritual institution would focus on moral guidance, Qur’anic revival, interfaith peace, and social justice through ethical management of public funds (bayt al-mal), rather than political rule.
However, this model faces significant limitations. By renouncing political authority, the spiritual Caliphate lacks mechanisms for enforcing unity, resisting colonial influence, or resolving intra-Muslim conflicts. His vision, while ideologically rich, appears more as a cautious retreat than a viable political program. The text reflects deep tensions: between Pan-Islamist idealism and geopolitical realism, between Islamic unity and national liberation, and between revolutionary anti-colonialism and institutional feasibility.
Conclusion
Maulana Muhammad Barkatullah Bhopali’s The Caliphate represents a pivotal yet underrecognized contribution to anti-colonial and Islamic political thought. His discourse exemplifies the complex interplay of Islamism, nationalism, and transnational solidarity in the early 20th century. By redefining the Caliphate as a spiritual, consultative, and justice-oriented institution, Barkatullah sought to preserve Islamic identity while adapting to modern realities. Yet his proposal ultimately reveals intellectual ambivalence—a response to crisis rather than a coherent blueprint for action.
This study demonstrates that Barkatullah’s thought cannot be reduced to a single ideology. Instead, it occupies a liminal space where Pan-Islamism, anti-colonial resistance, and socio-economic justice converge. While his vision of a spiritual Caliphate may lack practical enforceability, it remains significant as a moral critique of both colonial domination and authoritarian rule. In an era of fragmented Muslim polities and enduring external intervention, Barkatullah’s call for unity, justice, and ethical governance continues to resonate—albeit as a challenge rather than a solution.
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* Ph.D. Student in Indian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5940-0098
**Corresponding Author: Assistant Professor, Department of South, East Asian and Oceanian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5305-8589
***Associate Professor, Department Department of South, East Asian and Oceanian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4256-3808
****Associate Professor, Department Department of South, East Asian and Oceanian Studies, Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran, Iran.
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