Iranian Liberatory Praxis in the Thought of Malkum-Khan
Subject Areas : پژوهش سیاست نظری
Seyyed Hossein Athari
1
,
Ehsan mozdkhah
2
*
1 - Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.
2 - Ph.D Student in Political Science (Iranian Issues Orientation), Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
Keywords: Typology, Critical Realism, Mirza Malkum-Khan, Iranian Liberation, Iran.,
Abstract :
Iranian Liberatory Praxis in the
Thought of Malkum-Khan
Seyyed Hossein Athari*
Ehsan Mozdkhah**
Mirza Malkum-Khan Nāzem al-Dowleh (1212–1287 SH / 1833–1908 CE) is among the most prominent intellectuals of the Iranian Constitutional Era. His political thought has primarily been interpreted within the framework of historiography of contemporary Iranian ideas. Examination of his ideas demonstrates that Malkum-Khan sought to liberate Iran from despotism, stagnation, and backwardness. This study analyzes his thought using a conceptual approach grounded in critical realism and a semantically oriented methodology. Such an approach represents an effort to understand reality and respond to Iran’s two-century-long historical question: “What is to be done?”—a question addressed by every intellectual, including Malkum-Khan—which in turn enables a deeper comprehension of political and social thought in modern Iran. Within this framework, Malkum-Khan’s response to the fundamental question “What is to be done?” is examined across the domains of politics, economics, and culture, with critical realism serving as the analytical lens. The outcome of this study illuminates new dimensions of Malkum-Khan’s political thought and reveals a discernible notion of governance embedded in his ideas.
Keywords: Typology, Critical Realism, Mirza Malkum-Khan, Iranian Liberation, Iran.
Introduction
Numerous Iranian intellectuals engaged in theorization to address
the central question of “What is to be done?” Malkum-Khan was born in Isfahan and, through his father, a translator at the Russian Embassy, traveled to Paris at the age of ten for education. After completing primary studies, he joined the Polytechnic School, studying engineering while simultaneously exploring political thought, particularly the ideas of French revolutionary thinkers, and was notably influenced by Auguste Comte. Debates persist regarding the impact of his ideas on Iranian society and the history of intellectualism in Iran. Scholars like Fereydun Adamiyat regard him as a unique agent of Iranian enlightenment, whereas others view his discourse as marked by self-referential repetition. In general, Malkum-Khan’s role in Iranian intellectual history and enlightenment is so prominent that few Qajar-era texts on law and governance fail to reference him. Drawing upon the ideas of John Stuart Mill, Voltaire, Montesquieu, and Auguste Comte, he sought to establish a bureaucratic, law-based state as a praxis of liberation from despotism and the absence of legal order. He perceived Iran’s disorder as stemming from such deficiencies. Examination of his works reveals that, despite apparent internal contradictions, his overarching discourse consistently aimed to expose Iran’s social and political disarray. In Malkum-Khan’s view, the solution to societal decay lay in the establishment of rule of law.
Methodology
This study adopts a qualitative, descriptive-analytical approach, emphasizing political thought to address the fundamental question: “What is to be done?” The methodology involves a fourfold interpretive cycle. First, political thought responds to social challenges or crises, whether economic, ethical, or otherwise. Second, political thought has an epistemic dimension, focusing on understanding reality and human nature as constitutive of political reasoning. Third, it carries a normative implication, envisioning an ideal or improved state of affairs in response to existing conditions. Fourth, political thought has a practical dimension, translating ideas into actionable solutions for identified social and political challenges. This framework enables an integrated understanding of Malkum-Khan’s thought and praxis.
Discussion and Analysis
From the latter half of the Naserian era to the preparatory stages of the Constitutional Movement, Iranian reformist intellectuals introduced new political perspectives, gradually rendering traditional political treatises obsolete. Intellectuals, including Malkum-Khan, diagnosed the country’s disorder, attributing it to multiple factors, among them deficiencies in language and education. He identified the roots of Iran’s disorder in religious conservatism, political inefficiency, unfamiliarity with modern sciences, and the absence of legal order. His solutions spanned political, economic, cultural, and educational domains. Malkum-Khan’s thought followed a coherent trajectory across social, political, and cultural spheres. It was philosophical in nature, emerging from the reality of the Iranian condition and aiming to substantiate scientific rationality. His systematic approach rendered his diagnosis and solutions both practical and theoretical, reflecting a transformative and liberating praxis.
In his Daftar-e Tanzimat, addressed to the Grand Vizier, he proposed comprehensive legal and administrative reforms to regulate various spheres of society and state. He advocated political reforms from above, describing Iran as uniquely poised to adopt any regulatory framework without obstruction. His theoretical commitment to a constitutional liberal system was complemented by practical efforts to guide the Qajar monarchs and the traditional society toward reform, particularly through his newspaper, Qanun. Malkom-Khan emphasized law as the foundation for securing citizens’ rights, expanding freedoms, and promoting dynamic governance—ultimately enabling societal liberation and modernization. The Ketabcheh-ye Ghaibi and Resaleh-ye Tanzimat, written circa 1238–1239 SH / 1859–1860 CE, sought to persuade Naser al-Din Shah to implement political reforms, emphasizing the role of law as the phoenix enabling Iran’s rise from backwardness. His approach to law and governance, though interpretable within institutionalist frameworks, harmonized Islamic tradition and Western rationality, distinguishing his thought from purely Western technical approaches.
Conclusion
Mirza Malkum-Khan emerges as an intellectual who revealed new dimensions of awareness in politics, economics, and science, striving to reconcile traditional reason with modern scientific rationality. His work demonstrates educational and intellectual praxis rooted in normative, legal, and institutional concerns. His political thought combines positivist, science-based approaches with attention to Islamic and Iranian nationalist values. His theory of legal governance and liberatory praxis addresses both practical political concerns and theoretical reasoning. The intellectual elements in his works, while reflecting attention to multiple spheres of praxis, reveal internal tensions due to epistemic limitations in understanding modern thought. For instance, his focus on subjectivity, progressivism, nationalism, language reform, and rule of law reflects a philosophical ontology bridging modern human-centered epistemology with traditional religious frameworks. In sum, Iran’s decay permeated political, economic, linguistic, and cultural domains, and Malkum-Khan’s proposed solution centered on political-social reforms and regulatory adjustments.
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* Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Iran.
athari@um.ac.ir
** Corresponding Author: Ph.D Student in Political Science (Iranian Issues Orientation), Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran.
eh.mozdkhah@mail.um.ac.ir
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